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Thursday, October 23, 2014
Cryopreservation
Cryopreservation is a technique of preserving and storing
viable biological samples in a frozen state over extended periods of time. The
preservation of animal cell has become dependent upon using low temperature to
render the cell metabolically inert. The term ‘cryopreservation’ refers to ‘a
method of cold storage.’ The optimum temperature for preserving animal
germplasm is liquid nitrogen temperature of -196 degrees Celsius. Temperatures
from -70 to -80 degree Celsius may be sufficient enough to maintain cell
viability for a few months. Cryobiology
is the study of the effects of extremely low temperatures on biological systems
such as cells or organisms.
Definition
Cryopreservation is the process of cooling and storing
cells, tissues and organs at very low temperatures to maintain their viability.
Spermatozoa were the first mammalian cells to be cryopreserved successfully
(Polge et al 1949).
Cryopreservation methods
The two most commonly used cryopreservation methods for
animal germplasm are slow programmable freezing and vitrification.
Slow programmable
freezing – In slow freezing, cells in a medium are slowly cooled to below
freezing point. Slow cooling is needed in order to increase osmotic strength,
which causes an efflux of water from the cells. Machines are used to freeze
biological samples using programmable
sequences i.e. ‘freezing down’ a sample to better preserve it for eventual
thawing before it is frozen or cryopreserved in liquid nitrogen. Biological
samples such as oocytes, skin, blood products, embryo and stem cells are
preserved by slow programmable freezing machines.
Vitrification –
The term ‘vitrification’ refers to any process resulting in ‘glass formation’(‘arrested
liquid state’) the transformation from a liquid to a solid in the absence of
crystallization (solid-liquid).
Vitrification usually requires the addition of cryoprotectants prior to
cooling. The cryoprotectants act like antifreeze: they decrease the freezing
temperature. They also increase the viscosity. Instead of crystallizing, the syrupy
solution becomes an amorphous ice- it vitrifies.
Stroage temperature
Cells can be stored for varying lengths of time at
temperatures between -70 to -196 degrees Celsius. For short –term storage (few
weeks) cells can be preserved at -70 degrees Celsius in standard mechanical
freezers. For long-term storage, cells can be preserved at liquid nitrogen
containers.
Liquid nitrogen containers
Liquid nitrogen containers are basically robust, heavily
insulated vessels into which liquid nitrogen is poured at regular intervals in
order to maintain the required temperature. Cells can be stored in either
vapour phase – containers at -120 degrees Celsius or liquid phase containers at
-196 degrees Celsius of liquid nitrogen. Storage at -120 degrees Celsius does
not significantly reduce cell viability. But indefinite storage of cells requires
liquid phase containers.
Cryoprotective agents (CPAs)
Glycerol and DMSO are the most commonly used cryoprotective agents.
Fetal bovine serum (FBS) is employed in mammalian cryopreservation solutions,
but it is not a cryoprotective agent. Dextrans, sorbitol, trehalose, polyethylene
glycols, starches, sugars, and polyvinylpyrrolidone provide considerable cryoprotection
in a variety of biologic systems (Mazur 1981). Salts, such as magnesium chloride, have been
reported to be cryoprotective agents (Karow and Carrier 1969). Cryoprotectants
protect slowly frozen cells by one or more of the following mechanisms: suppressing
high salt concentrations; reducing cell shrinkage at a given temperature;reducing
the fraction of the solution frozen at a given temperature and minimizing
intracellular ice formation. Combinations of cryoprotectants may result in additive
or synergistic enhancement of cell survival (Brockbank and Smith 1993,
Brockbank 1992). Intracellular cryoprotectants of low molecular weights
permeate cells e.g. glycerol, dimethyl sulfoxide. Extracellular cryoprotectants
with relatively high molecular weights do not penetrate cells e.g.
polyvinylpyrrolidone, hydroxyethyl starch.
Advantages of cryopreservation
Germplasm cryopreservation of the sperm, eggs and embryos contributes
directly to animal breeding programmes. Germplasm cryopreservation also assist
the ex situ conservation for preserving the genomes of
threatened and endangered species. Cryopreserved sperm, oocytes and embryos are
used for artificial insemination and embryo transfer in the livestock industry.
Cryopreservation also has enormous applications in the artificial propagation
of widely diverse aquatic organisms. Cryopreservation of sperm and embryonic cells has been successful
in a number of teleosts and invertebrate species. The establishment
of germplasm banks using cryopreservation can contribute to conservation and
extant populations in the future. Cryopreservation provides a continuous source
of tissues and genetically stable living cells for a variety of purposes
including research and biomedical processes. Cryopreservation reduces the risk
of microbial contamination or cross contamination with other cell lines.
Cryopreservation reduces the risk of morphological or genetic changes. It also
reduces costs of maintenance of cells, tissues or organs.
Safety considerations
The main dangers come from explosions of ampoules or cryotubes.
The technician must wear appropriate protective clothing, protective goggles,
face mask, insulated gloves etc. Careless handling of cold containers can also
cause burns, so it is important to use handling tongues. Nitrogen gas is
colorless, odourless and tasteless. It cannot be detected by the human senses.
So liquid nitrogen can be used only in well ventilated areas.
Stages in the cryopreservation
Selection of cell lines -à
cultivation of cells------à
Screening of cells -----à
preparation of cells-----à
freezing of cells ---à
Evaluation of viability.
Preparing cells for cryopreservation
Cells are prepared by trypsinization (0.25% w/v trypsin) to
detach adherent cell from flask surfaces. Cells in suspension are centrifuged
at around 100xg for 5to 10 minutes and the pellet is suspended in a small
volume (1-2 ml) of storage medium.
Storage medium
The cryopreservation media generally consists of a base
medium, protein source and a cryoprotective agent. The cryoprotective agent
protects the cells from mechanical and physical stress and reduces water content
within the cells. Cryoprotective agent minimizes the formation of cell-lysing
ice crystals. The formation of ice crystals may disrupt the cell membrane
leading to the death of the cells. The composition of the medium used to
suspend cells contains a cryoprotectant (usually glycerol or dimethyl
sulphoxide, DMSO) and a high protein concentration (serum 20% v/v)
cryprotectant = 7-10 % (v/v); serum – 20% (v/v).
Freezing
Since freezing is stressful, the rate of cooling from 0 to
50 degrees Celsius must be slow and controlled. A fall of about 1 degree
Celsius per minute is optimal. Rapid chilling results in thermal shock and leads
to cell death or injury. Once a
temperature of -50 degrees Celsius is reached, the cells must be cooled rapidly
to the final holding temperature.
Thawing of frozen cells
Cells retrieved from storage must be thawed rapidly to
ensure maximum survival. The ampoule should be plunged into a beaker of water
at 37 degrees Celsius. The cell suspension can be transferred drop wise into a
container holding about 20 ml of pre-warmed growth medium supplemented with 10%
fetal calf serum.
Conclusion
Cryopreservation of gametes, embryos and embryonic cells has
become of immense value in animal biotechnologies which provide an important
tool for protecting the endangered species and genetic diversity. Cryopreservation protocols have been
introduced as techniques for germplasm preservation of vegetatively propagated
horticultural and staple food crops. The establishment of cryobanks to utilize
the cryopreservation worldwide would be a significant and promising task in the
future.
Wednesday, October 22, 2014
Ultracentrifugation
Centrifugation is the most widely used technique for
understanding cellular and subcellular structures. During centrifugation, solid
particles experience a centrifugal force, which pulls those outwards i.e. away
from the centre. The velocity with which a given solid particle moves through a
liquid medium is related to angular velocity. In other words, centrifugation a
procedure involves the use of centrifugal force for the sedimentation of
components of a mixture. More dense components of the mixture move away from
the axis of the centrifuge, while less dense components of the mixture move
towards the axis. The sedimentation process is accelerated by the centrifugal
field.
Definition of centrifuge
Centrifuge is an apparatus that rotates at high speed and by
centrifugal force separates substances of different densities. In other words a
centrifuge is a device for separating particles or macromolecules (e.g. cells,
sub-cellular components, proteins, nucleic acids) from a solution according to
their size, shape, density, viscosity of the medium and rotor speed.
Definition of ultracentrifuge
Ultracentrifuge is a high-speed centrifuge for separating
microscopic and sub-microscopic materials to determine the sizes and molecular
weights of colloidal and other small particles.
Principle of centrifugation
The principle of centrifugation is that an object moving in
a circular motion at an angular velocity w is subjected to an outward force F
through a radius of rotation r in cms expressed as F=w2r . F is
frequently expressed in terms of gravitational force of the earth (RCF). The
operating speed of the centrifuge is expressed as revolutions per minute ‘rpm’.
The velocity of the moving particle is expressed in the form
of sedimentation coefficient (S) v = S (w2r). Sedimentation
coefficient is characteristic constant of a molecule and is a function of size,
shape and density. The rate of sedimentation can be increased by raising the
revolutions per second.
General types of centrifuges
Low – speed centrifuge
–(desk top or clinical centrifuges)- maximum speed 3000rpm. It is used for
separating serum form blood or separation of RBC etc.
High speed centrifuge
– 25,000 – 30,000rpm. It functions at low temperature of 0-4 degree Celsius. It
is used for cell fractionation i.e. separation of organelles.
Ultracentrifuge –
High speed at 75,000 rpm and refrigerated.
It is used for the separation of cell organelles.
Analytical centrifuge
- it has a built in optical system to measure the sedimentation characteristics
of macromolecules.
Components of a centrifuge
The principal components of a centrifuge are a rotor to hold
sample tubes and an electric motor to spin the sample. There are 4 types of
rotors: Swinging bucket rotor (horizontal orientation), fixed angle (30 degree
to the axis of rotation), vertical tube (centrifuge tube orients at an angle of
90 degree).
Types of ultracentrifuges
There are two types: analytical and preparative models.
Analytical ultracentrifuge – It
consists of rotors and tubes called cells. The instrument is designed to allow
the person to follow the progress of the substances in the cells, while
centrifugation is in progress. By estimating sedimentation velocity during
centrifugation, the molecular weight can be determined.
Preparative
ultracentrifuge – It is used for the purification of the components of
macromolecules and all determinations are made at the end of centrifugation.
The instrument does not have a monitoring device. Centrifugation is
accomplished by rotors which are either swinging bucket type or fixed angle
rotors. Swinging bucket rotors in which the buckets become horizontal, while in
motion. In fixed angle rotors, the tubes of the centrifuge are set at fixed
angles and the rotor moves in a specified plane at all times.
Description of ultracentrifuge
The ultracentrifuge consists of a fixed angle rotor of
aluminium or titanium revolving at high speed about an axis in an evacuated
chamber. The solution containing macromolecules is taken in the cell having
quartz windows. The cell is almost
filled with the solution and sealed to withstand the pressure developed in the
intense centrifugal field. A beam of light is allowed to pass through the
solution, which then falls on a detector – normally a photographic plate. Since light passing through an area of the
sample is proportional to the molecules present in that region, the darkening
produced in the photographic plate indicates the concentrations at various
depths of the centrifuge tube.
The ultracentrifuge can be useful in two different methods: sedimentation equilibrium and
sedimentation velocity methods.
In sedimentation equilibrium method, equilibrium is attained
between the rate of settling down of the molecules and at the rate at which
they diffuse back because of the thermal motion and Brownian movement under
action of gravity. This method takes
several days to complete because of the low centrifugal forces
(10,000-100,000g).
In sedimentation velocity method, higher centrifugal forces
(up to 500,000 times the gravity) are applied
to accelerate sedimentation. This method starts with a well defined boundary or
layer of solution near the center of the rotation and follows the movement of
this layer toward the outside of the cell as a function of time. When a solution
containing uniformly distributed solutes is centrifuged at high speed
(55,000rpm), the particles migrate outwards from the centre of rotation,
forming a well defined boundary between the solvent portions with or without
particles.
Analytical Ultracentrifugation (AUC)
All analytical techniques require the use of an
ultracentrifuge and can be classified into differential centrifugation and
density gradient centrifugation. The density gradient centrifugation is further
subdivided as zonal and isopycnic centrifugation.
Differential
centrifugation is a technique commonly used by biochemists. A tissue sample
such as liver is homogenized at 32 degrees in a sucrose solution that contains
a buffer. The homogenate is then placed in a centrifuge and spun at constant
centrifugal force and at constant temperature. After sometime a sediment forms
at the bottom of the centrifuge tube called pellet and the overlying solution
is called supernatant. The overlying solution is then placed in another tube,
which is then spun at higher speeds.
Applications –
Differential centrifugation is used to determine the number of components and
number of species; detection of impurities, molar mass of species; kinds and
stoichiometry of chemical reactions present in solution including association
with ligands, self- association etc. Materials analyzed include macromolecules
such as proteins, polysaccharides, nucleic acids; small molecules such as
drugs, ligands, gases and large aggregates such as viruses and organelles.
Density gradient centrifugation
The separation is done in a medium having different density
gradients. The selection of gradient medium is an important prerequisite. The
gradient medium should not affect the cell sample. The medium should be easily
sterilizable, recoverable and non-corrosive. Most common media includes
sucrose, glycerol, sorbitol etc. There are
discontinuous and continuous density gradients. In discontinuous density
gradient medium, the density increases one layer to another. This medium is
useful in the separation of whole cells, sub-cellular organelles or
lipoproteins. In continuous density gradient medium, the density decreases from
the bottom of the solution to the meniscus. This medium is useful in the
separation of ribosomes, viruses, proteins and enzymes. Density gradient centrifugation can be of two
types such as rate zonal centrifugation
and isopycnic centrifugation.
Rate zonal
centrifugation – centrifugation is carried out at a very low speed for a
short time so that the particles settle down. However centrifugation should be
stopped before the particles of any zone settle at the bottom e.g. separation
of nucleic acids, ribosomal subunits.
Isopycnic centrifugation
– Isopycnic means “of the same density.” Isopycnic = equal density and
separation is on the basis of different densities of the particles. Molecules
are separated on equilibrium position, not by rates of sedimentation. The
particles of solution move according to their buoyant densities and become
static at a place, where the density is greater than their own. This requires a
very long time centrifugation and high speed. As an example, the pellet
obtained by centrifugation of the tissue homogenate at 10,000g is suspended in
increasing densities of sucrose solution and centrifuged for several hours at
40,000rpm. Now the individual organelles move to the region of their own equilibrium
density and remain at the specific regions. This method is useful in the
separation of proteins, intracellular organelles and nucleic acid fraction.
Applications of density gradients
Density gradients are widely used to separate and purify, on
a preparative scale, a variety of cells, organelles and macromolecules such as
nucleic acids or proteins. Gradients are required for analytical experiments for
example to measure the apparent buoyant densities or sedimentation coefficients
of particles; to estimate the size, conformation or turnover rates of proteins
and nucleic acids; and to investigate the
effects of chemical, physical or biochemical treatment of the sample
material.
Sunday, March 16, 2014
Scientific research skills
Research can be defined as a careful and systematic
investigation in some field of knowledge, undertaken to establish facts or
principles. Scientific research is a continued search for scientific knowledge
and understanding by scientific methods. Research is aimed at obtaining the
information to test specific hypotheses.
6- basic steps in scientific method
1)Defining the problem by reviewing the relevant knowledge. Based on these activities, hypotheses are stated, questions are formed and experiments are designed. 2)Planning the research to collect the data required to evaluate the hypotheses or answering the research questions. 3)Carrying out the experiment to obtain the desired data. 4)Analyzing the results so that conclusions can be drawn.5) Interpreting the results so that practical applications can be made and 6)Reporting the results in a way that all relevant audiences will benefit from the knowledge obtained.
Methods of scientific research
There are three methods of scientific research such as
descriptive method, experimental method and statistical method.
1. Descriptive methods
They provide a description of the thing being studied. This method is very crude and it may be some combination of words and numbers. It can be a natural observation, systematic observation and by developing tests. Greeks first employed natural observation to record what they see. This method is unsystematic and time consuming. The research using systematic observation can be carried out by checklist technique, questionnaire method and public opinion.2. Experimental methods
In this method, the experimenter changes or varies something by keeping other conditions as constant as possible and looks for some effect of the changes or variations on the thing being studied.Experimental design – it must be planned with great care to control various factors/ variables.
Variables – a variable is something that varies. It can be
quantitatively measured. Variables fall into two classes: independent and
dependent variables. An experiment must have at least one independent and one
dependent variable. An experiment may also have more than one independent and more than one dependent variable. In a graph, the horizontal axis (abscissa) depicts the independent variable and the vertical axis (ordinate), the dependent variable.
1.
An
independent variable is a variable that the experimenter selects and
manipulates. In other words the variable that is purposely changed is an independent
variable. Each change of a variable is known as a level of independent
variable. Each Experimenter also selects the dependent variables.
2.
The
dependent variable is a variable that changes as a result of changing the
independent variable.
Constants – the various factors in an experiment that do not
change.
Controls – the main point of doing an experiment is to compare control
factors with experimental factors otherwise it is difficult to tell what is
going on.
The scale – it is a measuring device which consists of a
sequence of interchangeable units beginning with zero.
Ranking – it is the arrangement of the units of a measurable
quality in the order of amount.
3. Statistical methods
Statistical methods focus on the significance of differences, sampling error and probability. Correlation refers to a co-relationship between two sets of scores. Reliability refers essentially to repeatability. Validity refers to what the test is supposed to be measuring.Scientific reasoning
It refers to a body of techniques for investigating a phenomena and acquiring knowledge. It consists of systematic observation, measurement and experiment. Scientific methods requires intelligence, imagination and creativity. This method is an ongoing cycle of formulating, testing and modifying hypotheses.Types of research design
Exploratory research (huh?)
is conducted to generate or gather basic knowledge. It is performed to clarify
relevant issues, uncover variables or simply to collect more information.
Descriptive research
(who, what, where, how) is conducted to provide further insight into the
research problem by describing the variables of interest.
Causal research
(if...then) is done to provide information on cause and effect relationships.Importance of scientific research
- Develop new methods to conduct scientific research.
- Increase the sum total of information/ philosophies in various fields of science.
- Develop and apply new devices to conduct research.
- Increase the general availability of new materials and certain services.
Parts of a research article
Abstract –a brief overview of the article.Introduction – the purpose of the present study.
Review of literature – present relevant literature related to the present scientific study and justifying the choice of the present study which is uncovered till date.
Methodology - define new terms and describe the instruments and procedures.
Result – report the findings with tables and figures.
Conclusions – support the present findings with relevant literature.
References - cited literature may reflect the investigator’s knowledge on the subject and validity of the present study with reference to relevant published information.
"Man is the interpreter of nature, and science is the right interpretation."
Tuesday, March 4, 2014
Human somatic gene therapy - concepts and applications
Human gene
therapy can be defined as the transfer of exogenous genes or nucleotide
sequences into somatic cells for the purpose of preventing, correcting or
healing various diseases.
Somatic gene
therapy is a new type of weapon in the fight against acquired diseases.DNA is
considered as a drug providing a framework for curing thousands of genetic
diseases. It also satisfies one of the greatest dreams of clinical medicine: ‘molecular surgery’ at the root of the
disease.
Cystic fibrosis (CF)
People
suffering from cystic fibrosis lack CF gene needed to produce a salt-regulating
channel protein, cystic fibrosis
transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR). This protein regulates the flow
of chloride in to epithelial cells that cover the air passages of the nose and
lungs. Without this regulation, patients with CF disease build up thick mucus
that makes them prone to chronic lung disease. The gene
therapy technique to correct this abnormality might employ an adenovirus to transfer
a normal copy of the CFTR gene. The gene is introduced into the patient by
spraying into the nose.
Familial hypercholesterolemia (FH)
The patients
with genetic disorder unable to process cholesterol properly by a low density lipoprotein receptor(LDLR),
which leads to high levels of fat in the blood stream. Patients with FH disease suffer from heart
attacks and strokes because of blocked arteries. A gene
therapy approach is developed with partial removal of patient’s liver. Corrected
copy of a gene is inserted into liver sections, which are transplanted back
into patients. The healthy gene may reduce the cholesterol build-up in the
blood of the patient.
Duchene muscular dystrophy (DMD)
DMD is the
most common childhood form of muscular dystrophy because of the failure to
express dystrophin in the muscle fibres. It is a lethal, recessive X-linked
disorder, more frequent in males. Muscular dystrophy is characterized by
progressive muscle weakness, defects in muscle proteins and death of muscle
cells and tissue. Viral mediated in vivo
gene transfer method was developed to deliver dystrophin gene to patient’s
muscle. Simple non-viral gene transfer in
vivo was also developed using naked plasmid DNA.
Cancer therapy
In general,
cancers have at least one mutation to a proto-oncogene (yielding) an oncogene)
and at least one to a tumour suppressor gene allowing the cancer to proliferate.
Oncogene inactivation may be targeted at the level of DNA, RNA transcription or
protein product. Oligonucleotides are designed in sequence specific manner to
target the promoter regions of oncogenes. At the RNA level, antisense
techniques prevent transport and translation of the oncogene mRNA by providing
a complementary RNA molecule (e.g., C-myc gene). Ribozymes, antisense
oligonucleotides with a cleavage action will reduce the stability of oncogene
mRNA. Restoration of the tumour suppressor gene such as p53 can be sufficient
to cause cellular apoptosis and arrest tumour growth.
Molecular chemotherapy for cancer cells
Herpes
simplex virus thymidine kinase (HSV-Tk) converts the prodrug ganciclovir into
toxic metabolites. This toxicity is sufficient enough to kill the cancer cells.
DNA repair by gene therapy
Another
approach involves the repairing of a gene using chimeric oligonucleotides.
Homologous recombination is a natural process that controls the replacement of
a defective gene. Highly precise DNA repair is performed by using DNA
oligonucleotides to introduce site specific changes in the genome, even a
single incorrect base can be corrected.
Transplantation tolerance in organ transplanted patients
In organ transplanted
patients, the use of immunosuppressive drug is associated with increased risk
of the development of cancer, infectious and ischemic heart disease. Gene
therapy can be used to reduce the immunogenicity by introduction of genes to
block T-cell activation.
HIV treatment by gene therapy
By
introducing an antiviral gene into an infected T-lymphocyte, the HIV virus can
be killed or expressing an antiviral gene in the normal T-lymphocyte may
protect the patient from future HIV infection.
Replacement of hormones and blood factors by gene therapy
If an
erythropoietin gene or factor IX gene is transferred via adeno-associated
vector into muscles, it will cause the expression of relevant protein.
Prodrug activation
In herpes
simplex virus thymidine kinase method, the thymidine kinase enzyme in every
transduced cell converts the prodrug ganciclovir into monophosphate and triphosphates
forms. The triphosphate form of ganciclovir interferes with the DNA replication
and kill the cancer cells.
Treatment of hepatitis B and C
The genetic sequence of RNA molecules of the particular virus is cut and destroyed by using ribozyme producing genes.Monday, March 3, 2014
Environmentally sustainable development
Our society depends on the maintenance and
protection of the environment. Ecological communities provide exergy (high
quality energy), materials and information required for the human societies to
sustain themselves. Urban development, agriculture, mineral/oil extraction,
fisheries, and forestry practices can threaten the very existence of ecosystems
and alter/eliminate important habitats, key species and people’s way of life.
Sustainability is the capacity to endure.
Sustainability is a state of balance between resource use and the regenerative
capacity of the earth. Sustainability lies in the interplay of environmental
quality, economic vitality and social equity.
Environmental sustainability
Environmental sustainability refers
to the maintenance of natural capital (e.g., natural resources). The term ‘natural capitalism’ was coined by Paul
Hawken in 1994. Natural capital is equivalent to ecological wealth which refers to the resources and services
provided by nature. In other words
natural capital is comprised of environmental resources and ecological services
that can be used for life and factors of production. The human economy depends
on the planet’s natural capital and the utilization of natural capital beyond
its regenerative capacity results in depletion of the capital stock. The factors depleting natural capital
include over-population, poverty, unsustainable resource use, environmentally
degrading economic policies, and technological inputs.
The natural capital performs 3
distinct types of environmental functions:
- Provision of resources for production - the raw materials that become food, fuels, metals, minerals, timber etc.
- Absorption of waste from production – both from the production process and from the disposal of consumer goods.
- Basic ecological services – e.g., climate control, shielding of UV radiation by ozone layer, air/ water purification, water storage, nutrient/mineral cycling, soil renewal, waste treatment etc.
Concept of critical
natural capital (CNC) – the concept originates from the idea that there is
a certain minimal amount of natural capital necessary for ecosystems (ecosystem
limits) to continue to function and provide services for its inhabitants. It is
an ecosystem’s ability to support an adequate standard of living for human beings
which includes drinking water, food, shelter, a moderate climate and resources
for production.
It indicates human demand on the biological capacity of the
earth.
Ecological sustainability
Ecological sustainability can be described as ‘securing
quality of life within the limits of nature. Ecological sustainability is a
conservation concept-meeting human need without compromising the health of
ecosystems.
It is the capacity of
natural ecosystems to maintain their essential functions and processes and
retain their biodiversity in full measure over a long period of time. Achieving
ecological sustainability is a balancing act between current needs and future
needs.
Sustainable development
Equity, security and the environment are the key elements of the definition of sustainable
development.Sustainable development can best be visualized
in ‘the critical triangle of development’
with 3Es: environmental (ecological
development), equity (social development) and economic development.
Economic development has to do with the creation of material wealth (goods and
services) to meet the human basic needs. Ecological development means
protection and conservation of our natural resources. Sustainable should also
guarantee inter and intra generation equality with respect to meeting all basic
needs. In general sustainable economic development improves the economy without
undermining the society and the environment.
In 1983, the United Nations called for a high level commission, the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), commonly known as the Brundtland Commission. In 1987, its final report ‘our common future’ stressed the need for economic growth and development strategies in all countries that recognized the limits of the ecosystem’s ability to regenerate itself and absorb waste products.
In 1983, the United Nations called for a high level commission, the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), commonly known as the Brundtland Commission. In 1987, its final report ‘our common future’ stressed the need for economic growth and development strategies in all countries that recognized the limits of the ecosystem’s ability to regenerate itself and absorb waste products.
Definitions of sustainable development
·
The sustainable development is defined as ‘forms
of progress that meets the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their needs (our common future, 1987: The
world commission on environment and development).
·
The sustainable development is defined as the
maintenance of essential ecological processes and life support systems, the
preservation of genetic diversity and the sustainable utilization of species
and ecosystems (IUCN/WWF/UNESCO,1991).
·
The sustainable development is the improvement
in the quality of human life within the carrying capacity of supporting
ecosystems.
Concepts related to sustainable development
1.
Introduces the idea of a strong link between economic
growth and natural resources/environment.
2.
Introduces the idea of a complex relationship between
growth and the environment, drawing attention to the need of environmental
sustainability, economic sustainability, social sustainability and the need for
conciliation in conflicts between these different dimensions.
3.
Asserts that ‘zero’ economic growth can be as harmful
to the environment as uncontrolled economic growth.
4.
Introduces the idea that the fight against poverty, for
social justice and quality of life are essential aims in order to ensure
sustainability in environmental, economic and social terms and
5.
Asserts the idea that sustainability is not a linear
process and cannot be gauged against a single and developmental model.
Green economy
Green economy is an economic development model based on sustainable development and knowledge of ecological economics. This concept is often associated with ideas such as “low-carbon growth or green growth.” In green economy, the environment is an “enabler” of economic growth and human well being. Green economy includes green energy generation based on renewable energy as an alternative to fossil fuels and energy conservation for efficient energy use. Karl Burkart defines a green economy as based on 6 main aspects: Renewable energy, Green buildings, Sustainable transport, water management, Waste management and Land management. The Rio Declaration recognizes the “integral and independent nature of the Earth, our Home” and in principles 1 and 3 that humans are “entitled to a healthy and productive life in harmony with nature” and the development must “equitably meet developmental and environmental needs of present and future generations.”
Environmental distress syndrome
When the natural environment is subject to multiple
stresses, it can exhibit distress symptoms.
The term ‘environmental distress syndrome’ refers to deteriorating
environmental conditions and concomitant threats to human health. In other words environmental distress syndrome
is a condition that affected the human beings of the earth after years of
pollution and exploitation of the planet. A distress syndrome refers to the
irreversible processes of system breakdown leading to the termination of the
system before its normal lifespan. An ecological system should be healthy and
free from ‘distress syndrome’. Healthy ecological systems are an essential
condition of healthy people, healthy communities and sustainable livelihoods.
Pollution, the introduction of contaminants into an
environment that causes instability, disorder, harm or discomfort to the
physical ecosystem or living organisms.
Paul Epstein (1997) of Harvard University’s centre for
health and global environment lists 5 symptoms of environmental distress
syndrome.
1.
The re-emergence of infectious diseases e.g., cholera,
typhoid, dengue fever, drug-resistant tuberculosis.
2.
Loss of biodiversity e.g., decline of frogs in 140
countries from 6 continents.
3.
The growing dominance of generalist species –e.g.,
crows, Canada geese.
4.
The decline in pollinators e.g., bees, birds, bats,
butterflies, beetles.
5.
The proliferation of harmful algal blooms e.g.,
paralytic shellfish poisoning.
Stress from human activity is a major factor in transforming
healthy ecological systems to sick systems. The complex interaction of
population, technology and human behaviour has resulted in anthropogenic stress
on most of the world’s ecological systems (population-pollution
syndrome).
Environmental stress
Environmental stress can be either natural or anthropogenic
(i.e., resulting from human actions). Many natural
environmental stresses such as hurricanes, droughts, floods, earthquakes
and forest fires are a periodic feature of earth. But anthropogenic environmental stress includes the production and
release of chemical compounds and large scale land-use changes result directly
from human actions. The population explosion, agricultural expansion and
industrial revolution greatly enhanced the anthropogenic stress on the
environment. The intensities
of ecological stresses vary in space and
time. When the ecosystem is subjected to a chronic stress
exceeding its tolerance limit, the ecosystem may display a syndrome of disruptions of its structure and function. The
structural changes include biotic impoverishment with a reduction in size,
number and abundance of organisms. The functional changes include gross
community metabolism, efficiency of mineral cycles and changes in the energy
flow rates.The stress in aquatic ecosystems is best exemplified by
eutrophication (forced nutrient enrichment), Increased primary production with
algal blooms and insufficient decomposition of organic matter with increased
anaerobic zones. There is a replacement of longer lived larger species by short
– lived opportunistic species.
All environmental changes progress at two levels:
Systemic global
changes refer to changes operating at the global scale. For example, the
doubling of carbon dioxide from more fossil fuels leads to enhanced greenhouse
effect which leads to global climatic changes.
Cumulative global
changes refer to the snowballing effect of local changes which add up to
produce change on a global scale. E.g., acid rain or soil erosion.
An ecological system is healthy and free from ‘distress
syndrome’ if it is stable and sustainable that is if it is active and maintains
its organization and autonomy over time and is resilient to stress (Costanza,
1992).
Costanza’s concept (1992) of ecosystem health indicators
Costanza proposed 6 attributes of ecosystem health indicators.
1.
Homeostasis (self – regulation) 2. Absence of disease
3. Diversity or complexity (number and types of species) 4.stability or
resilience 5. Vigour or scope for system growth and 6. Balance between system
components.
Xu and Mage (2001) proposed 4 sets of criteria to assess
ecosystem health: structural changes, functional changes, organizational
changes and dynamics.
"The earth is what we all have in common."- Wendell Berry.
"In nature nothing exists alone." -Rachel Carson, Silent spring.
"The earth is what we all have in common."- Wendell Berry.
"In nature nothing exists alone." -Rachel Carson, Silent spring.
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